Service Quality In Restaurants

Service Quality In Restaurants By conducting a literature review, the reader gets a better understanding of the question in hand. According to LeCompte et al(2003,p.124), conducting a literature review is a means of demonstrating an authors knowledge about a particular field of study, including vocabulary, theories, key variables and phenomena, and its methods and history. The research question which is addressed is service quality in restaurants, to which the literature review would focus to wherever necessary, with wide areas of service quality in general being looked into. Service Quality is not only an object of wide interest among organizations, but also is a topic that is widely discussed by researchers. Since it doesnt possess characteristics such as products do, service quality has never been easy to define. Researches have proposed different characteristics in terms of its dimensions, but few have been used. One of the most widely used model is based on the comparison between the expectations and perceptions of the customer about an organizations service. Parasuraman et al.(1985) created a model to measure service quality called the Gap Model. This was later used as a basis for creating the SERVQUAL model which is a 22-item scale used to measure service quality. It had a great impact on later works and evolved as one of the predominant tools t o be used across organizations. Restaurant is a field where SERVQUAL is used extensively for measuring their service quality. In the following section, the service quality literature is explained in detailed and later on, its linkage to the restaurant industry is looked into. 1. SERVICE QUALITY The service management literature argues that customer satisfaction is the result of a customers perception of the value received, where value equals perceived service quality relative to price (Hallowell, 1996, p. 29). 1.1 DEFINITION OF SERVICE In order to understand what Service Quality is, it is essential that the term Service is defined. Grà ¶nroos(2001) claims that services are processes and not physical entities or goods, and that service firms have processes that interact rather than products. According to Stromgren(2007, p.12) , a service is an activity or series of activities of a more or less intangible nature than normal, but not necessarily , take place in the interaction between the customer and service employees and/or physical resources or goods and/or systems of the service provider, which are provided as solutions to the customer problems. 1.2 DEFINITION OF QUALITY There are plenty of definitions of quality that are prescribed by different authors. According to Juran(1988), quality can be defined as the fitting to the intended use of the entity and thereby meeting the expected standards. In the case of an entity not fitting its intended use and expectations, the customers can bill it as of poor quality. Crosby(1979) prescribed quality as `conformance to requirements`; Garvin(1988) found internal and external failures of the entity and measured quality by the count of the failures. However, Parasuraman et al(1985) claims that quality cannot be defined using a product-based approach when dealing with service sectors and hence came forward with the term Service Quality. Considering that my research topic and questions is based on service quality, the explanation provided by Parasuraman et al(1985) is used. 1.3 DEFINITION OF SERVICE QUALITY The concept of service quality and its theories and practicality has been considered very important by the academics and practitioners over the past few decades because it acts as a chief contributor to customer satisfaction and profitability (Parasuraman et al,1985). Thus service quality has become as important factor for all organizations that need to survive in a competitive market. The definition of service quality as conceptualized in various literatures on service, centres on the quality perceived, and is defined as the judgement made by the customer about an entitys overall excellence or superiority (Parasuraman et al., 1988). In accordance with the finding of Ghobadian et al(1994),service generally has four characteristics which are different from manufacturing goods. The four characteristics are described below: Inseparability of production and consumption: This characteristic of services refers to the fact that production and consumption of service is inseparable as they are in contact with each other (Parasuraman et al.,1985). The service provider in turn becomes an important component of the service and is assessed by the consumers (Zeithaml et al., 2003). In the process, the consumers become co-producers of the service (Edvardsson,2005). In the service industry, the producers create the services which simultaneously involve its consumption. There is no room for complacency and quality shortfalls cannot be covered at this point. To illustrate, the service is being constructed at the same time that the customer is receiving it. Intangibility: Services are fundamentally intangible which means that it is impossible for the customers to physically see, smell or touch the product before the purchase is made. Services can easily be copied as a result of intangibility, because most of the services are not patented (Zeithaml et al.,2003). Intangibility results not only in difficulty to manage services, but it becomes hard for the consumers to evaluate(Lovelock et al.,2004). Hence, the customer turns to other alternatives such as obvious signs of quality such as reputation, physical tangibles, and word of mouth from previous users. In services, word of mouth and reputation have the most importance, and thus drives the service provider to deliver services right and flawless, the first time. Perishability : Service cannot be inventoried for later use which means that it impossible to have a final check like manufactured goods. According to Zeithaml et al.(2003), careful planning has to be made to manage services, as they cannot be resold or re-inventoried. Hill(1977,p.318), in his article, mentions that services can be seen as a change in the condition of a person, or of a good belonging to some economic unit, which is brought about as the result of the activity of some other economic. Another dimension to this was added by Lovelock et al.(2004) that stated that goods could be more complex to manage as the costs are incurred for its storage. So, service operations must get the right service first time. Heterogeneity: It involves service consistency and accuracy. Due to the fact that delivery of service usually involves a contact between provider and consumer, thus the behaviour of service provider can influence the perception of the customer. Moreover the accuracy of the information and the ability to interpret customers expectation correctly has a great influence on customers perception of service quality. However, expectations may change during delivery process. For this reason, service providers have to rely heavily on the ability of their staff to understand customers demand and respond in a suitable way. Service can be divided into two dimensions, the functional quality and the technical quality (Gronroos,1984). The technical quality essentially deals with what or what service is provided and functional quality deals with how or how the service is delivered. Another conceptual model which was brought forward by Lehtinen et al. (1991) comprises of physical, interactive and corporate qualities of an organization. Interactive quality deals with the overall interaction of the customers with the elements of the firm. Corporate quality deals with the image customers have about the firm. Physical quality deals with the physical good which is consumed during a service process, food at a restaurant for example and also the physical elements which make up the facilities of the restaurant. Going further deep into the service quality literature, Parasuraman et al. (1985) used 10 dimensions to explain service quality which were tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, courtesy, credibility, compet ence, access, communication, security and understanding. This model was later reduced to a scale of 5 dimensions after a process of reliability and validity testing (Parasuraman et al. , 1988). 2. CUSTOMER LOYALTY The satisfaction of the customers is one of the main aims in any business, the restaurant business in this case. Businesses recognize that maintaining current customers is much easier than winning over new ones to replace the loss (McColl-Kennedy Schneider, 2000). It is mandatory for restaurants to strategize their services to suit the ever-changing dining needs and lifestyles of customers, if they have to increase loyalty from customers. (Min et al,2002). Individuals dining expectations have evolved over the years due to changing social environment, better education, the development of culinary culture, healthy dieting awareness and cultural influences(Markovic, S .et al ,2010 p.182). According to Wishna (2000), customers, in future, would expand their dining horizons to a new level. They would need new experiences to satisfy their ever-changing requirements. Probably the most extensively debated topic about service quality field is the constructs of service quality and the related customer satisfaction (Johnston,1995). Many researches have come to a conclusion that they are two different entities but the relation between the two entities is still questioned(Cronin et al.1992). Parasuraman et al(1988,p16), suggested that perceived service quality is a global judgement, or attitude, relating to the superiority of the service, whereas satisfaction is related to a specific transaction. Parasuraman et al(1995) identified from their research that satisfaction is clearly linked to each specific transaction. They also mention that customers may be satisfied with the particular transaction but might not identify the firm as a high quality one. On one hand, there are other researches which support the argument that customer satisfaction is an antecedent of service quality(Bitner,1990). Bolton et al.(1991) suggest that satisfaction is derived from disconfirmation and becomes an important factor which influences customers opinion of the service quality. However, recent researches claim that service quality is the antecedent of satisfaction, in opposition to the arguments from the earlier works. According to Zeithaml et al(2003) states that while customer satisfaction is a broader concept, service quality is a component that comprises of customer satisfaction along with other components which includes price, product quality, personal factors and situational factors. 3. SERVICE QUALITY MODELS The use of technology can provide an organization with the needed thrust to enhance its service quality. There are several conceptual models of service quality available, which helps the management in identifying quality issues. By making sure these issues do not re-surface, it increases the possibility of improving the organizations profitability, efficiency and overall performance ( Parasuraman et al,1988). 3.1 THE GAP MODEL Service quality, unlike goods quality, cannot be measured in terms of the number of defects. It is an elusive component which is difficult to measure ( Parasuraman et al,1988). In their earlier research in 1985, Parasuraman et al. identified that service quality rises from the comparison of the expected quality and the perceived quality of service performed. They explored the concept of service quality by taking focus group interviews. The conceptual model which was identified as a result of the research consisted of five gaps in the desired service.The first four gaps is part of the perceptions and tasks in providing services, by the management. The last gap is the overall expectations from the customers. They formed a new service quality model which was based on the gaps between the expected and perceived quality. This is known as the GAP Model. Fig 1. Illustrates the model. The five Gaps that were identified are ( Parasuraman et al., 1985) : Knowledge GAP, Standards GAP, Delivery GAP, Communications GAP. GAP 1 : The Knowledge GAP is the difference in the level of expectation of the customer and the organizations perceptions of the customers expectations. In some cases, the management fails in understanding what the customers want. The dimensions identified by the management as important and which constitutes good service might not be the things that the customers look for. GAP 2 : The Standards GAP is the difference in organizations perceptions of the customers expectations and the service quality standards. The management find it difficult to deliver services according to the customers expectations due to lack of resources or other conditions which are not favourable. But they understand what the customers want. GAP 3 : The Delivery GAP is the difference between the organizations service delivery and its related communication with the customer. Staff performance towards delivery of the service plays a huge part in the customers perception of the service quality. But it can be inconsistent, even though the standards are specified. The quality of service delivery can be affected due to variability among providers. GAP 4 : The Communications GAP is the difference between the organizations service delivery and the communicated information about the service to the customers. This gap occurs when a firm fails to deliver the promised services. The consequences of overpromising in that the expectations of the customers are high and when the actual service is received, their perceptions of service quality sink. GAP 5: Overall experience of the service is the main point of focus here. The first four gaps form the perception of service that the customers receive whereas the fifth gap stands for the customers expectations compared to their perceptions, ie their view on the service quality. The diagram is illustrated in Fig 1. Fig.1 The GAP Model The GAP model is the most widely used and is one of the most important contributions to service quality literature (Brown et al. 1995). Gaps 1 to 4 shows how the service is delivered, while Gap 5 depicts the overall difference between the expected and perceived service with respect to the customer. Gap 5 is the most influential in the SERVQUAL model (Parasuraman et al, 1985). 3.2 SERVQUAL Measuring the quality of services in a restaurant is a daunting task as both the service outcome and service delivery is to be assessed. According to Wu et al. (2009), service encounters in restaurants comprise of three components: environmental elements (e.g. design, music,lighting), employees (e.g. professional skills, reliability) and customers (e.g. interaction with other customers). Environmental elements consist of the design of the restaurant interiors, the music being played and the lighting which is used. Employees form the core part of the service which helps to perform the service. To understand all characteristics of the restaurant service quality an appropriate measurement instrument should be developed. SERVQUAL is an instrument that is used to assess the customers perception of the service quality of a service. It is a multi-scale instrument, which took its shape from the GAP model originally, and later was developed further in the 1980s. The instrument contains two sections. One section consists of 22 items that measure consumers expectations. The other section includes 22 corresponding items that measure consumers perceptions of the service they received. The 22 statements represent the five service dimensions that consumers use to evaluate service quality: tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy (Markovic, S., 2010, p.183). According to Parasuraman et al. (1988), Tangibles: Comprises of physical settings, the equipment used and the appearance of the employees Reliability: the ability of the employees to deliver the promised level of service Responsiveness: the ability of the employees to be willing to help out the customers and serve customers without any delay Assurance: is the level of knowledge the employees possess and their courtesy towards the customers, together with their ability to build trust and express their confidence Empathy: is the providing of individualized attention to the customers and be caring towards them. In SERVQUAL, the service quality measurement is based on the comparison of customers expectations and their perceptions of delivered service. The difference between expectations and perceptions scores is called the SERVQUAL gap. A negative gap indicates that received service did not met customers expectations. On the contrary, a positive gap indicates that customers perceived that service delivery exceeded their expectations. SERVQUAL is used as an instrument to diagnose an organizations weaknesses and strength in terms of service quality and uncover them. It creates a systematic, multi-stage process that is based on the dimensions identified and entities which correspond to that organization (Zeithaml et al., 1988). It can be used in businesses of any kind and provides a basis structure owing to its expectations-perceptions model, comprising statements for all the five different dimensions. 3.3 LIMITATIONS OF SERVQUAL Many organizations have used SERVQUAL for measuring their service quality with considerable amount of success, although there have been certain problems which have been identified. These problems are : Dimensions of the model Parasuraman et al.(1991) claimed that the five dimensions is SERVQUAL used to assess service quality can be used in all service contexts. However there were differences in opinion among other researchers. Buttle(1996) argued that the dimensions change with respect to numbers and the factors as SERVQUAL is used in different service contexts. According a research conducted in a retail setting by Finn et al.(1991), SERVQUAL dimensions are not generic. Babakus et al.(1992) noted that the dimensions can be simple or complex depending on the type of industries it is used in. A major argument to Parasuraman et al. was by Carman(1990), where he did not agree with the combining of the 10 original dimensions to five as he thinks the collapsed dimensions could have been important in certain areas and hence should be looked into as a separate dimension. Expectation of the service Expectation in a service context essentially means the desired level of service that a customer would like to receive ( Parasuraman et al., 1988). It is the minimum level of service quality that the provider should provide. But due to the ambiguous nature, it can be interpreted in different ways. While some may rate expectations according to their expected ideal or optimal performance, others may rate it as a minimum tolerable performance (Teas,1993). Issues with GAP scores The high rating of expectations by customers in the SERVQUAL setup leads to negative scores which immediately start questioning the analytical utility and interpretation of the concept (Smith, 1995). Process Focus According to Buttle(1996), SERVQUAL deals with only the process or the method by which services are delivered but not the quality of the final output that is provided. When service quality is assessed, both process and output should be used in SERVQUAL as both together can give the prediction of the choice that the customer would make rather than one without the other(Richard et al.,1993). Pricing Price plays an important role in determining the customers expectations and perceived quality(Smith,1995). He states that according to some customers, excellent food service comes with high price while lower prices are associated with restaurants which are targeting a lesser market. Hence, according to Smith(1995), price should be considered when measuring service quality. SERVQUAL is only one of those instruments which is used in measuring service quality. And going by the words of Asubonteng et al.(1996), until a model which is capable of better measurement evolves, SERVQUAL will be dominant. I am using SERVQUAL as the tool to measure service quality in the restaurants I am focussing on. 4. SERVICE QUALITY IN THE RESTAURANT INDUSTRY Expectations are defined as what the customer beliefs of the service that would be provided and is the main standard against which the actual performance is measured (Zeithaml, V. and Bitner, M., J. 2003). There are five types of expectations of the customers- (i) minimum tolerable expectations (ii) acceptable expectations (iii) experience-based norms (iv) normative should expectations (v) ideal expectations(Zeithaml, V. and Bitner, M., J. 2003) According to Garvin(1987), the common attributes of service quality are Performance, features, conformance, aesthetics, reliability, durability, serviceability and perceived quality. Parasuraman et al. (1990) developed a five-dimensional framework of service quality which consisted of tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy to analyse service quality. However, GroÈnroos (1990) came up with a framework of his own which consisted of six elements in measuring the perceived value of services. These are explained in Table 1. There are many factors that may influence customers assessments of restaurant quality. Previous researches suggested that food quality, physical environment and service are the major components of overall restaurant service quality (Dulen 1999; Susskind Chan 2000). Among these attributes, food quality is the most important dimension of the restaurant experience (Sulek Hensley 2004). What is more, it is an essential requirement to satisfy the needs and expectations of restaurant customers (Peri 2006). Although there is no consensus on the individual attributes that constitute food quality, the researchers focus on presentation, healthy options, taste, freshness and temperature (Namkung Jang 2008). Several studies have cited the importance of service quality for customer satisfaction with a service encounter (Stevens et al. 1995; Qu 1997). Additionally, in restaurants settings, service quality is an important determinant of customer satisfaction (Kim et al.2009) and return intention (Kivela et al. 2000). Stevens et al. (1995) developed an instrument called DINESERV which was based on the SERVQUAL. It was created to measure the perceptions of the customers about the restaurants service quality. It was used by many as a very reliable and simple tool for finding out the customers view on service quality. It consisted of 29 items, which fell into the five service quality dimensions. It is used in assessing different types of restaurants. Through the findings, it is known that the customers give the highest priority to reliability. Further researchers like Heung et al.(2000) have identified that the customers expectations vary depending on the restaurants. They used DINESERV to compare and contrast certain restaurants at an airport and found out that the expectations vary with different restaurants. However none of the tools have included food quality as a possible dimension. According to Andaleeb et al.(2006), SERVQUAL should include food quality as a service quality dimension as food quality covers the entire section of food service attributes. This was supported by Namkung et al.(2007) who valued the importance of food quality in measuring service quality as they identified in their research that it was the main factor which influenced customer satisfaction. They claim food quality constitute of presentation, variety, healthy options, taste, freshness and temperature(Namkung et al., 2007). Against this backdrop, the main aim of the research, the use of technology in improving service quality in restaurants is looked into. 5. USE OF EXISTING TECHNOLOGY IN RESTAURANTS TO AID SERVICE QUALITY The use of technology is increasing in all aspects of the restaurant industrys operations and management. Technology is traditionally viewed as the key component in industries. In recent years, technological developments have acted as the key catalyst in improving service operations and providing the customers with enhanced experiences at restaurants. According to Berry(1995), technology should be used as a servant rather than acting as the master. It should be used to add value to the service offered to the customers, not to completely replace the role of service. Technology offers a better method of performing the service, which eventually benefits the firm, the customers and the employees. It provides a better image to the firm, better dining experiences to the customers and varied and easy way of performing service, to the employees. To cite an example, McDonalds, the chain of restaurants maintain their business by deploying simple technologies to aid services. Devices like food timers and vegetable cutting machines are used to maintain the consistency of various products. When the management considers the type of technology to be adopted, they should also take into account, the reaction of the customers to it, apart from the expenses and benefits that the restaurant might face. It is worthwhile to note that, a new technology will not be of significance if it does not satisfy the customer. By using technology, it benefits both the customers and the restaurant management. 5.1 Benefits to customers Improved convenience The term service convenience deals with the desired time and effort the customers are ready to invest in dining out. An increase in service convenience is directly related to an increase in customer satisfaction (Holdern et al., 2008). Technology can be used to improve access convenience which deals with the relative ease with which an order can be placed, transaction convenience which deals with speeding up the payments and benefit convenience which deals with controlling the pace of their time at the restaurant (Dixon et al.,2009). Increased control Control is defined as the need to demonstrate ones competence, superiority, and mastery over the environment( Hui et al., 2002). From past researches, it has been proved that customers feel more satisfied when they feel they have substantial control over their service encounter( Ariely et al., 2000). Hence, when implementing new technologies, it is important to choose such that the majority of the control the service encounters remains with the customer. 5.2 Benefits to the restaurant management Service speed Increased speed of service can lead to more satisfaction and higher revenues, as more customers can be served. This is where use of technology steps up. The time taken for taking orders, communicating the orders to the kitchen, managing the tables, transaction times can all be reduced by the use of technology. Hand-held electronic devices like ipad and HP touchpad are widely used in restaurants. Orders taken through these devices can be directly sent to the electronic display board in the kitchen, so that there is no delay between taking the order and food preparation, which speeds up the service, and eventually better customer satisfaction. The tables in the restaurant can be managed by using advanced table managing softwares that are prevalent these days. This can help in effectively controlling queuing. Transactions and payments can be made faster by using handheld credit card machines at the table to ensure there are no delays. While faster service always leads to better satisfaction, it should be managed properly so that the customers must not feel the notion that they are being rushed through the service. Reduction in labour cost- Usage of technology helps in reducing cost incurred due to large number of staff. Usage of self-service kiosk and online and off-line reservations help reduce labor charges. Also, kitchen equipments like automatic dishwasher, plate warmer helps reduce costs incurred for staffs. A steady increase in volume and revenue A new trend in the modern restaurant industry is to create attractive websites and create their own accounts in various social networking websites like Facebook and Twitter. Customers can access information from these pages and can also subscribe to updates from these restaurants about the latest offerings, menu and special events if any. Online reservations provide the restaurants with a separate channel which makes the restaurant feel more accessible and also through which customers can be attracted. Previous researchers have found out 59% of the restaurants which uses online reservations encounter a steady increase in sales(Lang,2006). Other research identified that customers even make online reservations even during hours outside the working hours of the restaurant, which means the restaurants are capturing business during periods which they normally did not expect to( Layton, 2006; Ross, 2006). Improved service and product Technology if used appropriately, can aid restaurants to provide improved and consistent service to customers. Past researches have shown that an increase in the perceived product quality and service quality have led to an increase in the restaurants profit and better customer satisfaction ( Rust et al.,1995). The areas in a restaurant where technology are used can be divided into five section, namely(Dixon et al.(2009)): Queue management Menu Internet-based content Kiosk Transactions The usage is depicted in a tabular form in the next page. Category Technology used Relevance Queue Management 1.Table management software 2.Pagers given to the customers 3.Hand-held order-taking devices while waiting in the queue Pagers alert the customers seated in the waiting area when their table is ready Hand-held devices help to take the orders from the waiting customers and transfer it directly to the kitchen so as to minimize the delay of food preparation Menu Virtual menus available online which contains details of the nutritional values Virtual menus available at the table Customers can decide on the menu when ordering online based on the nutritional value Customers seated at a table gets to know the content of the food and its nutritional values before ordering Internet-based content Online table and food reservation system Websites to connect to the customers about new offers, special discounts and new items on the menu Accounts on social networks to create a sense of belonging to the customers Online ordering helps in reducing the waiting time for food at the restaurant Customers get to know the latest happenings at the restaurant and understand the new things on offer Urges customers to become part of the restaurants online family Kiosk Ordering food through kiosk Making payments through kiosk Ordering through kiosk helps the customers to order through a touch screen device, without other staff contact Making payments using kiosks add the personal touch to each customer Transcations Payment using hand-held credit card machines,SMS and NFC(Near-field communication) Makes payment much faster than the traditional cash or taking-card-to-counter method Table 1 : Usage of existing technology(Dixon et al.200

Norwegian Security Policy After The Cold War :: essays research papers

Norwegian Security Policy after the Cold War Despite widespread diplomatic discussion, and sentiment that the UN Security Council must be expanded in order to maintain its long-term legitimacy, no generally acceptable formula for expansion has emerged. Concerns for obtaining or retaining voting power, and for preserving a body structured so as to be able to take prompt and effective decisions, have prevented agreement. This article reviews various criteria for evaluating restructuring proposals, and suggests a formula that, while not fundamentally affecting the distribution of power on the Council, might satisfy many states' minimal requirements for an acceptable package of changes. The end of the Cold War between East and West has strengthened Norwegian security, which makes Norway no different from most other European countries. There are now more dimensions to security policy than there were when the overriding aim was deterrence by means of one's own and allied military forces. Cold War perceptions of military threat no longer exist. In Norway's particular case, however, it is possible to talk about a remaining strategic threat, when referring to Russian deployments in the far north. Such a threat is only a potential one and is not imminent today. Yet it has to be acknowledged that wars between nations and ethnic groups have hardly been abolished. As a result, it has become more difficult to identify the risk of armed aggression directed against Norway The risk would seem to reside in the escalation of a whole series of completely different political developments. For example, these eventualities could take the form of the emergence of a nationalistic dictatorship, or the development of ungovernable political chaos in formerly communist countries. Because of the existence of some very large arsenals and supplies of military equipment, it is important to judge the political aims of potential opponents. These can change over time, not least if they represent irrational and aggressive attitudes. The nuclear weapons of the great powers do not seem to have any deterrent effect on "violent ethnic cleansing", and the emergence of armed conflicts in different areas can be difficult to predict. But a country's security can also be subject to something that has become more topical after the Cold War: low level threats. These are related to some very different types of irregular national border transgressions, for example international crime and various forms of pollution. The Cold War's dominating concept, security by means of deterrence, is complemented by the concept of collective security. This harmonises well with the traditional Norwegian approach to security policy of combining deterrence with reassurance. The potential enemy is also a partner. A small country has no

Comparing Winterbourne and Prufrock :: Daisy Miller, Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When creating his famous poem, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock", T.S. Eliot was inspired by a character depicted in the novella known as Daisy Miller, written by Henry James. This character, Winterbourne, was intertwined and considered when creating the timid character of Prufrock. It is evident that both men share similar personalities and characteristics that link them together, both being prime examples of emptiness and despair told through theses writings.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The central concern in Daisy Miller is of the "analogies and differences" between people. In this story, a young American man, Winterbourne, is confused and intrigued by the behavior of a young American woman, Daisy Miller. Winterbourne had wondered about all of the cold shoulders that had been turned towards her, and sometimes it annoyed him to suspect that she did not feel at all. He said to himself that she was too light and childish, too uncultivated and unreasoning. Then at other moments he believed that she carried about in her an elegant and perfectly observant consciousness from the impression she produced. He asked himself whether Daisy's defiance came from the consciousness of innocence or from her being, essentially, a young person of the "common" class. After getting to know Daisy, he was confused about getting to know his and her emotions. It is far evident that Winterbourne does not come to conclusions about people easily. He was very much influenced by the biases of his upbringing in culture, and he questioned them occasionally.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" is about a timid and downcast man in search of meaning, of love, and in search of something to break from the dullness and superficiality which he feels his life to be. Eliot lets us into Prufrock's world for an evening, and traces his progression of emotion from timidity, and, ultimately, to despair of life. He searches for meaning and acceptance by the love of a woman, but falls miserably because of his lack of self-assurance. Prufrock is a man for whom, it seems, everything goes wrong, and for whom there are no happy allowances. The emptiness and shallowness of Prufrock's "universe" and of Prufrock himself are evident from the very beginning of the poem. He cannot find it in himself to tell the woman what he really feels, and when he tries to tell her, it comes out in a mess. At the end of the poem, he realizes that he has no big role in life.

American Views Before and After World War II

America is well-know for its wealth and independence. Proud Americans come together to fight for democracy and freedom, while fighting against extremists and their desire for world conquest. War stories usually favor the victor. As a result, after World War II, many of the stories that began to circulate added to an already inflated US ego. After World War II, depending upon the country, the impressions of Americans are diverse.On one hand, Americans were saviors; however, the other hand, many were offended because of America’s tentativeness to join the war efforts, plus the overconfidence Americans displayed with they eventually joined the war. Although, the US declared themselves as isolationists, they continued to provide defense supplies to the Allied states. These defense supplies came by way of Roosevelt’s Lend-Lease program. This program contributed to Allies collaborative efforts to resist German advancements. The Axis powers took considerable offense to this po licy, which resulted in hostility towards the US.By the time, the US officially entered the war; a devastated, Nazi-occupied Europe was struggling for survival. The wealth gained from Lend-Lease resulted in a secure and confident economy for the US. This great wealth, massive military, and America’s ability to harness atomic power, added to the audacity to use that power, were the factors that elevated the US into superpowerdom. Although, the economy was not the only reason for America’s ascent to become a superpower, it was also the combined efforts of the American citizens to support the war effort, which attributed to their elevated status.However, according to Stoler, most Americans did not attribute the end of World War II to combined efforts; they perceived it as a return to â€Å"normalcy† (p. 385). Stoler continued his opinion by stating that both Britain and the Soviet Union were slightly aggravated and annoyed at the US for assuming the superior status at the end of World War II (p. 388). Americans believed their arrival secured the defeat over Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire. However, Britain and the Soviet Union’s opinions differ slightly regarding the US.According to Stoler, the British considered Americans â€Å"latecomers† to the war and felt abandoned during the first two years (p. 388). When the US finally decided to join the war, they entered with the â€Å"naive, arrogant, and incorrect belief that they should dictate both combined wartime strategy and a new, self-serving postwar international order† (p. 388). From the Soviet’s point of view, America’s role was â€Å"relatively insignificant† as compared to the Soviet role; plus, the US deliberately procrastinated entering the war with the intention to exploit the Soviet Union by using the Lend-Lease program (Stoler p.388). Memory serves as an important element during war-time. Many people consider memories of specific event s irrelevant. These recollections of selectively retrieved events can possibility deliver incorrect details of said events. Earl Kelly with the McClatchy-Tribune Business News even quoted Carol Gluck while speaking at the 31st annual Bancroft Lecture at the Naval Academy, â€Å"history and memory are often in collision, rather than collusion, with each other† (2010).Even the most overrated misconceptions of World War II were sometimes included into movies. Often, the US Government embedded them selves into the movie industry. The reason being was to influence Americans on the importance of entering the war by means of propaganda. Worland states, that the Office of War Information affected most popular war-time films; especially films that â€Å"depicting the armed forces, images of America as a united, democratic society, the ideology of the Axis enemy, and so on† (p.48). This governmental influence pushed Americans to support the war effort. The U. S. brought to the w ar added military, supplies, and ideas for the Allies. While the US may have been imprudent and arrogant in their attempt to assume control, but the U. S. did bring alternative solutions to the table. To some countries, Americans are egotistical and lazy. Fortunately, America’s pompous attitudes gave the added incentive and strength to the Allied powers that helped end the war. Works Cited Kelly, E.(2010). Historian says memories fuel inaccuracies. McClatchy – Tribune Business News. Retrieved November 20, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 2155533071). Stoler, M. (2001). The Second World War in U. S. History and Memory. Diplomatic History, 25(3), 383. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. Worland, R. (1997). OWI meets the monsters: Hollywood Horror Films and War Propaganda, 1942 to 1945. Cinema Journal. 37(1), p. 47-65. Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/1225689

Kafka and the Dramatisation of the Guilty

Kafka†¦ draws the reader into the dramatization of the (guilty) failure to arrive, to communicate, to understand. And it is this movement which he describes again and again, not only on the level of rational discourse, but on a great many levels. -Heller Heller's statement is at best a rather enigmatic one: riddled with unanswered questions and uncertainties. The reader of Heller's statement would first ask himself how Kafka†¦ draws the reader into the dramatization, then would question the failure to arrive, to communicate, to understand: arrive, communicate, understand what? Thirdly, one asks oneself what is the movement he describes again and again: drawing the reader into the dramatization or the failure to arrive, communicate, understand. And lastly, one wonders what the â€Å"many levels† are that Kafka uses to communicate the rather ambiguous â€Å"movement†. The failure to arrive is a recurrent theme throughout the novel. Probably the best example of it is the failure to arrive at a judgement. K is on trial for the entirety of the novel, and never is judgement passed on him. He is waiting for the court to arrive at a judgement during the course of the novel, yet at the end he is only punished: the court never arrives at a judgement. This can be applied to most of the book: for instance K's failure to arrive at the first hearing on time and the failure of his case to arrive at the highest courts. It is if events are placed in suspense, their conclusion shimmering ever so faintly in the distance and the reader, like Tantalus, attempts to attain the unattainable. Failure to arrive may indicate that in â€Å"The Trial† the journey or process is more important than its conclusion; was the original German manuscript not actually called â€Å"Der Prozess†? However, whatever be the meaning of the failure to arrive, it is instrument al in creating tension as the conclusion continues to be elusive. The failure to arrive can possibly be linked with the failure to communicate in that if one is still in the process of thinking and has not yet arrived at a conclusion, one would find it difficult to accurately describe the thought process to another, hence the failure to communicate. I believe that the most accurate way to define the failure to communicate can be found in Brink's interpretation of the novel. Brink sees language in â€Å"The Trial† as being unable to communicate anything. Take, for example, the advocate's speeches. They are entirely superfluous: Huld turns endlessly around the point with out actually addressing it. Whether this is due to the inadequacy of language or to whether there actually is a point or not one is not sure, but there is clearly a failure to communicate. I believe that the concept of failure to communicate in The Trial is perhaps partly created by the language used in the novel, most of which convey only abstracted logical concepts. The lang uage used has no substance and therefore it is completely detached from reality: the syntax is correct but it makes no sense at all. Failure to understand also plays an extremely important rà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½le in the novel. It can be seen to follow on directly from the failure to communicate: if one person cannot communicate, the other cannot understand. Perhaps the most important instance of failure to understand is K's failure to understand the court system. He never seems to develop an adequate understanding of it from those who have or claim to have an understanding of it. They are unable to communicate their understanding to K, thus keeping K from arriving at an understanding or conclusion. This of course brings us back to the failure to arrive (at a conclusion) which in turns leads to the failure to communicate, and so on. According to Heller, Kafka dramatizes these failures by creating forms in which they can interact with each other, i.e. characters. It is into this dramatization that Kafka draws us by a rather clever usage of basic trait of human nature. Human nature is rather curious by definition, and Kafka uses this facet of human nature to entice the reader into a complete immersion in the world of â€Å"The Trial†. The failure to arrive at any conclusion or judgement is rather intriguing in that it creates a permanent sense of tension: a menace hanging over one's head in suspended animation and the goal almost visible in the distance. One does not know whether it will remain suspended, spring to life, or whether it is there at all. Indeed, one does not know if there really is a point or conclusion. This uncertainty, however, does not stop our pursuit of the glittering conclusion. The sight of it makes the state of uncertainty even more unbearable and the elusive conclusion yet more desir able. One is enticed into entering deeper into a tangle of uncertainties by this lure. The failure to communicate supports this. By using extremely ambiguous language, devoid of any substance and meaning, one is constantly held in a state of uncertainty. Bathed in this uncertainty, we feel the need to understand, to resolve the uncertainties. The failure to understand throughout the novel is echoed in the mind of the reader: if the narrator and/or the text know nothing and/or communicate nothing it is natural that the reader is maintained in a situation where he understands nothing and his curiosity is aroused. Eventually the reader to becomes part of the drama. His failures to understand, communicate and arrive echo those in the novel and reinforce them, plunging the reader yet deeper into the labyrinth without a center. This movement is a downward cycle in which confusion begets confusion, drawing the reader deeper and deeper into the text in a downward spiral. Heller declares that it is this movement which is described and communicated again and again throughout the text. It is indeed correct that this movement is repeated again and again: it is a chain reaction in which some begets more of the same and so on and so forth. However, one wonders how Kafka manages to communicate this to the reader. It is certainly almost impossible to explain it through the medium of language since it has been explained in the text that language is ambiguous and only confounds and obfuscates. Yet by it's own definition then, it is perfectly suited to describe this movement and feeling in the novel. Kafka uses the container, and not the content, in order to communicate the movement to his readers. Yet in a sense the content, or rather the lack of it, also helps to communicate the movement. One expects that a container contains. It is logical that and object should fulfill its definition. In ascribing to this logic, one falls even deeper into the text as one searches for meaning and substance. One becomes lost and confused wading through all the superfluous packaging searching for the content. But there is no center; there is no content. We echo K in his search for the high court, the nub of the court system. He fails because there is no nub; there is no high court.

Principles of supporting business events Essay

Principles of supporting business events Section 1 – Understand how to support the organisation of a business event 1. When organising a business event, describe the range of support activities that may be required. You will have to organise a venue, depending on type of event get appropriate size, make sure venue is available for particular dates, depending on location check transportation and accessibility get appropriate equipment for different types of presentations, what types of gadgets, will be or not needed some hearing aid, depending on size of venue and event. Arrange speakers, food and drinks : that will depend on how long the event is, will it be just few hours or all day or perhaps few days. Make sure range of food available, for example vegetarian or diary free. Send invitations, advertise the event, get documentations, licence and insurance cover if necessary travel and accommodation: that again will depend on type of event and how long it is going to be, for example if the event is international I have to organise things like visas, airport pick up, hotel and arrival to the event itself 2. Complete the table below by identifying two ways of providing support before, during and after a business event. Before During After 1. Invite speakers 1. Meet and greet, look after during the event, distribute documentation. Collect feedback. 1. Analyse feedback, circulating notes. 2. Book travel and accommodation. 2. Offering information, book taxi, deal with lost property, collect informal feedback 2. Contributing to analysing event. Section 2 – Understand the purpose of displaying professional and helpful behaviour whilst supporting a business event and how to do so 1. Explain the purpose of displaying professional and helpful behaviour when supporting a business event. Professional and helpful behaviour will make more efficient and effective event leave external and internal customers satisfied. Always helps to meet people with a smile and asking if you can help with anything, give people clear instructions what is happening for example when breaks will be taking place, how much time will occupy different speakers or activities so keeping everyone informed and as a result resources will be not wasted and people are generally more cooperative towards professionalism. On contrary not been helpful, for example, will create tension within people and lack of knowledge will leave people unsatisfied. 2. Describe ways of exhibiting professional and helpful behaviour whilst supporting a business event. There are few ways to exhibit professional and helpful behaviour. First thing people note, of course, is appearance. It is pleasant to see clean, well groomed people. It gives first positive impression and people’s mind already set for professionalism. Again a smile can do a lot when meeting people, smile means you want to help and ready to help. Smile invites to ask questions and leaves with positive attitude. When listening to a person it is important to keep eye contact as it relaxes people and if you listen attentively people again feel positive and that is exactly what you want them to feel about whole event and experience. Keeping everyone informed and get your job done such as paperwork, materials for event, answer questions, including phone and computer your main aim and recipe for successful event. Section 3 – Understand how to deal with problems encountered when supporting a business event 1. What are the main types of problems that may occur when supporting a business event? You should include at least three different types of problems in your answer. There could be many problem occur during event from very stressful to minor. They all fall into three categories: People problems Equipment problems Process problems 2. Identify possible solutions for each of the problems you have listed in Question 1 above. Possible solutions to event problems: 1. Always remain calm and polite, apologise to attendees if they experiencing a problem. 2. Find out exactly what the problem is and solution and if you can solve the matter, if not identify the colleague that can 3. Take appropriate action or undertake tasks specified by the colleague in charge† 4. Double check everything, use reliable supplies, proven techniques. Check equipment yourself and ask to do so your colleagues. Seek advice from experience people, reviews and other available sources. Remember what kind of problems you had at the previous events. 5. Ask yourself what kind of things could go wrong, what if main speaker doesn’t arrive in time, what if equipment fails etc. Plan what solution to problems could be beforehand. You should always check that problem was solved and make sure it doesn’t happen again.

Dualism versus Materialism Essay

This Paper shall tackle the long-term debate between dualism and materialism. It shall first present and define the concept of dualism. Then, it shall present the argument or arguments of the dualists, which shall be rebutted by the argument or argument of the materialists. After these, the concept of materialism shall be defined. Then, arguments for materialism shall be presented, which shall be rebutted by the argument or arguments of the dualists. Finally, the writer shall discuss his viewpoint on the matter — whether he believes in dualism; whether he believes in materialism; whether he believes in both; and why if any. Dualism as the term implies is a belief that there are two different substances or types of being (http://skepdic. com/dualism. html). These two are distinct and independent from one another as one is material and the other is spiritual (http://skepdic. com/dualism. html). The former is the one that is defined as the physical or the empirical world (http://skepdic. com/dualism. html). This is what we can identify through our senses — sight, smell, touch, taste and hearing (http://skepdic. com/dualism. html). In addition, this type of substance can be identified through instruments that extend our senses, such as radar, telescopes, etc. (http://skepdic. com/dualism. html). In short, external proof can easily be gathered as to the existence and essence of this type of substance. On the other hand, the latter type of substance is described as the negative of the other, i. e. non-physical, non-material and non-empirical (http://skepdic. com/dualism. html). This is also known as the psychological, mental or spiritual world (http://skepdic. com/dualism. html). The dualist believes in the existence and the interaction of both types of substances. A manifestation of this is the belief in the immortality. The dualists believe that as the spiritual world, as you may call it is separate from the material world, when the latter withers away, the former remains. Rene Descartes is a known dualist. He is also known as the Father of Modern Philosophy. He lived in a time of doubt and disappointment, which is why he devised the method known as the Universal Methodic Doubt. Through this method he doubted everything until he attained something that he could no longer doubt (Descartes, Meditations Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy). From this process, he realized that â€Å"[i] think therefore I am† (Descartes, Meditations Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy). For him this is the only thing that cannot be doubted is that he doubts (Descartes, Meditations Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy). Through his process, he realized that clear and distinct ideas are the first truths (Descartes, Meditations Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy). Examples of these ideas are the truths of mathematics. More importantly, through this method, he also realized the dichotomy between the spiritual and material world in that he can doubt the existence of his body but he cannot doubt that he exists as a being (Descartes, Meditations Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy). The dichotomy is further bolstered through the fact that his body is subjected to different rules or laws as compared to his mind (Descartes, Meditations Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy). His body is governed and follows the laws of physical science but his mind does not (Descartes, Meditations Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy). He posited the relation of the material substance to the spiritual substance in this wise: [e]xternal motions affect the peripheral ends of the nerve fibrils, which in turn displace the central ends. As the central ends are displaced, the pattern of interfibrillar space is rearranged and the flow of animal spirits is thereby directed into the appropriate nerves. It was Descartes’ articulation of this mechanism for automatic, differentiated reaction that led to his generally being credited with the founding of reflex theory (Wozniak, citing Descartes, Meditations Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy). Husserl and Merleu-Ponty as they define the â€Å"body† in a different wise, criticizes the Descartes depiction of the body. The latter criticizes Descartes in that human beings do not relate to the body the way it relates to other external objects, such as a table or chair (Merleu-Ponty). Proof of this is the fact that a human being does not move or affect an external object the way he/she moves or affects his/her own body (Merleu-Ponty). Husserl points out that doubting the body already assumes that the body is a mere physical thing (Husserl). Such assumption does not come from philosophical thinking but from the scientific thinking that was prevalent during Descartes’ time (Husserl). Ryle points out: †¦one person has no direct access of any sort to the events of the inner life of another. He cannot do better than make problematic inferences from the observed behaviour of the other persons body to the states of mind which, by analogy from his own conduct, he supposes to be signalled by that behaviour†¦ (p. 16). †¦mental happenings occur in insulated fields known as â€Å"minds†, and there is, apart maybe from telepathy, no direct causal connection between what happens in one mind and what happens in another†¦ The mind is its own place and in his inner life each of us lives the life of a ghostly Robinson Crusoe. People can see, hear and jolt one another’s bodies, but they are irremediably blind and deaf to the workings of one another’s minds and inoperative upon them. (p. 15) On the other hand, materialism is the belief or school of thought that all beings are composed of matter, material force or physical processes (Stack). All events and facts are explainable, actually or in principle, in terms of body, material objects or dynamic material changes or movements. In general, the metaphysical theory of materialism entails the denial of the reality of spiritual beings, consciousness and mental or psychic states or processes, as ontologically distinct from, or independent of material changes or processes. Since it denies the existence of spiritual beings or forces, materialism typically is allied with atheism or agnosticism (Stack). One of the formulations of the materialism is the belief that one rule is reducible to another rule (Stack). This is reflected likewise with the fact that one matter is reducible to another (Stack). For instance, H2O is reducible to hydrogen and water. A chinese sharpie is reducible to animal, dog and crumpled (Stack). In other words, matter as it exists is composed of other formulations of matter. This preservation of causal/explanatory role is reflected in at least one of two ways: (a) the laws in the reduced and reducing theories are similar (this concerns whether they isolate the same covariations in the world) and (b) theoretical-predicate pairs across the reduced and reducing theories isolate, or pick out, the same objects (Churchland; Hooker, cited in http://philosophy.uwaterloo. ca/MindDict/materialism. html). The problem with materialism is that it shuts the possibility of the non-spatial’s existence. There is no attempt, based on the sub-classification of materialism, to reconcile the notion to its principles. Materialism is more persuasive simply because there is empirical data to support the principles that it furthers. There is support with the belief that there are smaller components of matter that form part of other matter. This has already been proven by science. On the other hand, the causal connection between a consciousness and the body, which dualism furthers, while I feel exists is not addressed by materialism. However, the findings and the logic that was used in dualism seem to lack persuasion in it. References Boyd, R. (1980) â€Å"Materialism Without Reductionism: What Physicalism does not Entail,† in N. Block (ed. ), Readings in Philosophy and Psychology, Volume I (pp. 67-106). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Broughton, J. (2002), Descartes’s Method of Doubt, Princeton. Caroll, R. , Dualism, http://skepdic. com/dualism. html, . Carruthers, P. (1986) Introducing Persons, London, Routledge. Churchland, P. M. (1989) A Neurocomputational Perspective: The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Crossley, N. (1995) Merleau-Ponty, the Elusive Body and Carnal Sociology, Body and Society 1(1) 43-66. Crossley, N. (1995) Body Techniques, Agency and Intercorporeality, Sociology 29(1), 133-50. Crossley, N. (2001) The Social Body: Habit, Identity and Desire, London, Sage. Curley, E. M. (1999), Descartes Against the Skeptics, Iuniverse. Descartes, R. (1999), Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, tr. by Donald A. Cress, Hackett. Descartes, R. (1969) Discourse on Method & The Meditations, Harmondsworth, Penguin. Hooker, C. A. (1981) â€Å"Towards a General Theory of Reduction,† Dialogue 20, 38-59, 201-36, 496-529. Husserl, E. (1972) Experience and Judgement, Evanston, Northwestern University Press. Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962) The Phenomenology of Perception, London, RKP. Putnam, H. (1988) Representation and Reality. Cambridge, Mass. : The MIT Press. Ryle, G. (1949) The Concept of Mind, Harmondsworth, Penguin. Stack, G. (1998) Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward Craig, New York, Routledge. The Cambridge Companion to Descartes, ed. by John Cottingham (Cambridge, 1992). Wozniak, Robert H. (1992) â€Å"Mind and Body: Rene Descartes to William James,† Washington, National Library of Medicine and the American Psychological Association. .